Discussions

Discussions can occur in various contexts and disciplines across the university, ranging from labs to lectures. Involving students in discussions enhances their learning and motivation by encouraging them to form their own opinions and express their thoughts.

Basic Principles

Effective discussion leading goes beyond just asking questions and receiving answers from students; it involves a nuanced set of roles and skills. C. Roland (“Chris”) Christensen, a pioneer of the case method of teaching who taught at Harvard Business School for 50 years, aptly captures this complexity: "

Effective preparation for discussion classes requires more time, as instructors must consider not only what they will teach, but also who and how. The classroom encounter consumes a great deal of energy, as simultaneous attention to the process (the flow of activities that make up a discussion) and content (the material discussed) demands emotional and intellectual engagement. The discussion teacher plays the roles of a planner, host, moderator, devil’s advocate, fellow-student, and judge – a potentially confusing set of roles. Even the most seasoned group leader must be comfortable with uncertainty, as discussion teaching is the art of managing spontaneity."

Discussions in the higher education classroom are essential for fostering critical thinking, engaging students in deeper learning, and developing communication skills. Here are some basic principles that can help facilitate effective discussions:

1. Create an Inclusive Environment

• Respect and Safety: Establish ground rules that ensure respect for all participants and a safe environment where everyone feels comfortable sharing their thoughts.
• Diverse Perspectives: Encourage the expression of diverse viewpoints and make sure all voices are heard, especially those from underrepresented groups.

2. Preparation

• Pre-Reading and Research: Assign readings or research tasks before the discussion to ensure students come prepared.
• Clear Objectives: Set clear objectives for the discussion so students understand the purpose and expected outcomes.

3. Active Participation

• Engagement: Use strategies to engage all students, such as think-pair-share, small group discussions, or role-playing.
• Encouraging Questions: Promote a culture of inquiry where students feel comfortable asking questions and challenging ideas.

4. Effective Facilitation

• Role of the Instructor: The instructor should act as a facilitator rather than a lecturer, guiding the discussion and encouraging participation.
• Open-Ended Questions: Use open-ended questions to stimulate deeper thinking and discussion.

5. Critical Thinking

• Analytical Skills: Encourage students to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information and arguments.
• Evidence-Based Discussion: Emphasize the importance of supporting opinions with evidence from credible sources.

6. Constructive Feedback

• Positive Reinforcement: Provide positive feedback to encourage continued participation.
• Constructive Criticism: Offer constructive criticism that helps students improve their thinking and communication skills.

7. Reflection

• Post-Discussion Reflection: Allow time for students to reflect on the discussion, what they learned, and how their views might have changed.
• Feedback Mechanisms: Implement mechanisms for students to give feedback on the discussion process and content.

8. Adaptability

• Flexibility: Be prepared to adapt the discussion based on student responses and the direction the conversation naturally takes.
• Responsive to Needs: Adjust the approach based on the needs and dynamics of the classroom.

9. Use of Technology

• Online Platforms: Utilize online discussion forums, video conferencing tools, and other digital platforms to enhance and extend discussions.
• Interactive Tools: Incorporate interactive tools such as polls, quizzes, and collaborative documents to keep discussions dynamic and engaging.

10. Assessment and Evaluation

• Clear Criteria: Provide clear criteria for assessing participation and contributions to discussions.
• Continuous Improvement: Use assessment outcomes to continually improve the structure and effectiveness of discussions.

By adhering to these principles, educators can create a dynamic and effective discussion environment that enhances learning and fosters a collaborative and inclusive classroom culture.

Specific Tools and Strategies 

Tools and Strategies for Effective Classroom Discussions

1. Structured Discussion Formats

• Think-Pair-Share: This technique involves students thinking about a question individually, discussing it with a partner, and then sharing their insights with the larger group. It encourages active participation from all students.
• Socratic Seminars: A student-led discussion method where participants engage deeply with a text, asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and in-depth understanding.
• Debates: Organize formal debates on relevant topics. This format helps students develop their argumentation skills and understand multiple sides of an issue.

2. Technology Tools

• Discussion Boards: Platforms like Canvas, Blackboard, or Moodle have built-in discussion boards where students can post and reply to threads, facilitating asynchronous discussions.
• Video Conferencing: Tools like Zoom, Microsoft Teams, or Google Meet can be used for live, interactive discussions, especially useful for remote or hybrid learning environments.
• Interactive Tools: Use tools like Padlet for collaborative brainstorming, Mentimeter for live polls and quizzes, or Kahoot! for interactive games that engage students in discussions.

3. Engagement Techniques

• Fishbowl: A small group of students discusses a topic while the rest of the class observes. The observers then have an opportunity to join the discussion, providing feedback and new perspectives.
• Role-Playing: Assign students roles related to the discussion topic. This can help them explore different viewpoints and develop empathy and deeper understanding of complex issues.
• Case Studies: Present real-world scenarios for students to analyze and discuss. This method connects theoretical knowledge with practical application.

4. Questioning Strategies

• Open-Ended Questions: Use questions that require more than yes/no answers to encourage deeper thinking. Examples include "What do you think about...?" or "How would you explain...?"
• Probing Questions: Follow up on student responses with questions that prompt further explanation, such as "Can you elaborate on that?" or "What evidence supports your view?"
• Wait Time: After asking a question, wait several seconds before calling on a student to answer. This allows all students time to think and formulate their responses.

5. Feedback and Reflection

• Peer Review: Have students review and provide feedback on each other’s contributions. This can be done in small groups or pairs.
• Self-Reflection: Ask students to reflect on their participation and the discussion’s impact on their understanding. This can be done through journals, discussion logs, or reflection papers.
• Rubrics: Develop clear rubrics for evaluating discussion participation, including criteria such as relevance, evidence of preparation, engagement, and respect for others' viewpoints.

6. Inclusive Practices

• Anonymous Contributions: Use tools like anonymous polling or forums where students can contribute without revealing their identity, helping to reduce anxiety and encourage participation from quieter students.
• Small Group Discussions: Break the class into small groups to ensure more students have the opportunity to speak and be heard.
• Active Listening Exercises: Teach and model active listening skills, such as summarizing others’ points before responding and asking clarifying questions.

7. Assessment and Evaluation

• Participation Logs: Have students keep logs of their contributions and reflections on discussions to monitor their engagement and learning over time.
• Feedback Sessions: Regularly ask for student feedback on the discussion process and be willing to make adjustments based on their input.
• Formative Assessments: Use quick formative assessments like exit tickets where students write down what they learned from the discussion or questions they still have.

By implementing these tools and strategies, educators can create more engaging, inclusive, and effective discussions that enhance learning and foster critical thinking in the higher education classroom.

References and Resources

Books

1. "Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms" by Stephen D. Brookfield and Stephen Preskill
   • This book provides comprehensive strategies and tools for facilitating discussions in educational settings, with a focus on creating democratic and engaging classroom environments.
      
2. "Teaching at Its Best: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors" by Linda B. Nilson
   • This resource offers practical advice and techniques for college instructors, including effective discussion methods and engagement strategies.
      
3. "Active Learning: 101 Strategies to Teach Any Subject" by Mel Silberman
   • This book provides a wide range of active learning strategies that can be applied to enhance classroom discussions and student engagement.

Articles and Papers

1. "The Art of Discussion-Based Teaching: Opening Up Conversation in the Classroom" by John E. Henning, Jody M. Nielsen, and Anne M. Sortino
   • This article discusses methods for fostering meaningful classroom discussions and creating a conversational atmosphere in educational settings.
      
2. "Encouraging Critical Thinking in Online Threaded Discussions" by Katrina A. Meyer
   • Published in The Journal of Educators Online, this paper explores techniques for promoting critical thinking in online discussions, applicable to both online and hybrid learning environments.
      
3. "Effective Classroom Discussions" by Harvard University, Derek Bok Center for Teaching and Learning
   • This resource provides practical tips and strategies for leading effective classroom discussions, focusing on engagement and critical thinking.

Online Resources

1. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching - "Facilitating Effective Discussions"
   • This website offers guidelines and strategies for leading productive classroom discussions, including how to handle challenging dynamics and promote inclusivity.
   • Facilitating Effective Discussions
2. University of Michigan Center for Research on Learning and Teaching - "Guidelines for Discussing Difficult or High-Stakes Topics"
   • This guide provides strategies for handling sensitive or controversial topics in classroom discussions.
   • Guidelines for Discussing Difficult or High-Stakes Topics
      
3. Edutopia - "Classroom Discussion Strategies That Work"
   • An article providing practical strategies for engaging students in meaningful discussions.
   • Classroom Discussion Strategies That Work

Academic Journals

• Journal of Educational Psychology
  • This journal publishes research on various aspects of educational psychology, including strategies for effective classroom discussions and student engagement.
     
• Teaching in Higher Education
  • This journal focuses on pedagogy in higher education, offering articles and research on innovative teaching strategies, including discussions.

Structured Discussion Formats

1. Think-Pair-Share
   • Lyman, F. (1981). The Responsive Classroom Discussion. In A. S. Anderson (Ed.), Mainstreaming Digest(pp. 109-113). College Park, MD: University of Maryland Press.
   • McTighe, J., & Lyman, F. T. (1988). Cueing thinking in the classroom: The promise of theory-embedded tools. Educational Leadership, 45(7), 18-24.
2. Socratic Seminars
   • Copeland, M. (2005). Socratic Circles: Fostering Critical and Creative Thinking in Middle and High School. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.
   • Polite, V. C., & Adams, A. H. (1996). Improving critical thinking through Socratic seminars. Spotlight on Student Success, 110, 1-4. 
3. Debates
   • Kennedy, R. (2007). In-class debates: Fertile ground for active learning and the cultivation of critical thinking and oral communication skills. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 19(2), 183-190.
   • Vo, H. X., & Morris, R. L. (2006). Debate as a tool in teaching economics: Rationale, technique, and some evidence. Journal of Education for Business, 81(6), 315-320.

Technology Tools

1. Discussion Boards
   • Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2-3), 87-105.
   • Balaji, M. S., & Chakrabarti, D. (2010). Student interactions in online discussion forum: Empirical research from 'media richness theory' perspective. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 9(1), 1-22.
2. Video Conferencing
   • Borup, J., West, R. E., & Graham, C. R. (2012). Improving online social presence through asynchronous video. The Internet and Higher Education, 15(3), 195-203.
   • McBrien, J. L., Cheng, R., & Jones, P. (2009). Virtual spaces: Employing a synchronous online classroom to facilitate student engagement in online learning. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 10(3).
3. Interactive Tools
   • Hew, K. F., & Cheung, W. S. (2013). Use of Web 2.0 technologies in K-12 and higher education: The search for evidence-based practice. Educational Research Review, 9, 47-64.
   • Dillenbourg, P. (2002). Over-scripting CSCL: The risks of blending collaborative learning with instructional design. In P. A. Kirschner (Ed.), Three Worlds of CSCL: Can We Support CSCL? (pp. 61-91). Heerlen: Open Universiteit Nederland.

Engagement Techniques

1. Fishbowl
   • Sipe, R. B. (2001). A "fishbowl" model for the introduction of an online learning community. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 2(4), 323-331.
   • Barkley, E. F., Major, C. H., & Cross, K. P. (2014). Collaborative Learning Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty. John Wiley & Sons.
2. Role-Playing
   • Freeman, L. A., & Capper, J. M. (1999). Exploiting the Web for education: An anonymous asynchronous role-playing simulation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 4(2), JCMC421.
   • van Ments, M. (1999). The Effective Use of Role-Play: Practical Techniques for Improving Learning. Kogan Page.
3. Case Studies
   • Herreid, C. F. (2007). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.
   • Mayo, J. A. (2004). Using case-based instruction to bridge the gap between theory and practice in psychology of adjustment. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 17(2), 137-146.

Questioning Strategies

1. Open-Ended Questions
   • Chin, C. (2006). Classroom interaction in science: Teacher questioning and feedback to students’ responses. International Journal of Science Education, 28(11), 1315-1346.
   • Nystrand, M., & Gamoran, A. (1991). Instructional discourse, student engagement, and literature achievement. Research in the Teaching of English, 25(3), 261-290.
2. Probing Questions
   • Tienken, C. H., Goldberg, S., & DiRocco, D. (2010). Questioning the questions. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 46(1), 39-43.
   • Walsh, J. A., & Sattes, B. D. (2005). Quality Questioning: Research-Based Practice to Engage Every Learner. Corwin Press.
3. Wait Time
   • Rowe, M. B. (1986). Wait time: Slowing down may be a way of speeding up! Journal of Teacher Education, 37(1), 43-50.
   • Tobin, K. (1987). The role of wait time in higher cognitive level learning. Review of Educational Research, 57(1), 69-95.
      

Feedback and Reflection

1. Peer Review
   • Topping, K. J. (1998). Peer assessment between students in colleges and universities. Review of Educational Research, 68(3), 249-276.
   • Liu, N.-F., & Carless, D. (2006). Peer feedback: The learning element of peer assessment. Teaching in Higher Education, 11(3), 279-290.
2. Self-Reflection
   • Schön, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. Basic Books.
   • Brookfield, S. D. (1995). Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. Jossey-Bass.
3. Rubrics
   • Stevens, D. D., & Levi, A. J. (2013). Introduction to Rubrics: An Assessment Tool to Save Grading Time, Convey Effective Feedback, and Promote Student Learning. Stylus Publishing.
   • Reddy, Y. M., & Andrade, H. (2010). A review of rubric use in higher education. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(4), 435-448.
      

Inclusive Practices

1. Anonymous Contributions
   • Whittaker, S., Terveen, L., Hill, W., & Cherny, L. (1998). The dynamics of mass interaction. In Proceedings of the 1998 ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work (pp. 257-264).
   • Thomas, D., & Brown, J. S. (2011). A New Culture of Learning: Cultivating the Imagination for a World of Constant Change. CreateSpace.
2. Small Group Discussions
   • Cohen, E. G. (1994). Designing Groupwork: Strategies for the Heterogeneous Classroom. Teachers College Press.
   • Barkley, E. F., Cross, K. P., & Major, C. H. (2014). Collaborative Learning Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty. John Wiley & Sons.
3. Active Listening Exercises
   • Brownell, J. (2012). Listening: Attitudes, Principles, and Skills. Pearson.
   • Wolvin, A. D., & Coakley, C. G. (1993). A Listening Taxonomy. In A. D. Wolvin & C. G. Coakley (Eds.), Perspectives on Listening (pp. 15-32). Ablex Publishing. 

Assessment and Evaluation

1. Participation Logs
   • Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers. Jossey-Bass.
   • Boud, D. (1995). Enhancing Learning Through Self-assessment. Routledge.
2. Feedback Sessions
   • Nicol, D. J., & Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006). Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199-218.
   • Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81-112.
3. Formative Assessments
   • Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 5(1), 7-74.
   • Popham, W. J. (2008). Transformative Assessment. ASCD.